Turkish Literature

      Turkish Republican literature

Following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the First World War of 1914-1918, the victorious Entente Powers began the process of carving up the empire's lands and placing them under their own spheres of influence. In opposition to this process, the military leader Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938), in command of the growing Turkish national movement whose roots lay partly in the Young Turks, organized the 1919-1923 Turkish War of Independence. This war ended with the official ending of the Ottoman Empire, the expulsion of the Entente Powers, and the founding of the Republic of Turkey.

The literature of the new republic emerged largely from the pre-independence National Literature movement, with its roots simultaneously in the Turkish folk tradition and in the Western notion of progress. One important change to Turkish literature was enacted in 1928, when Mustafa Kemal initiated the creation and dissemination of a modified versionof the Latin alphabet to replace the Arabic-based Ottoman script. Over time, this change-together with changes in Turkey's system of education-would lead to more widespread literacy in the country [21] albeit the access of new generations was broken off with immense corpus of written culture of 1000 years.

Memed, My Hawk

(1955), by Yaşar Kemal

Tutunamayanlar

(1972), by Oğuz Atay

Stylistically, the prose of the early years of the Republic of Turkey was essentially a continuation of the National Literature movement, with Realism and Naturalism predominating. This trend culminated in the 1932 novel Yaban ("The Wilds"), by Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu. This novel can be seen as the precursor to two trends that would soon develop:[22] social realism, and the "village novel" (köy romanı). Çalıkuşu ("The Wren") by Reşat Nuri Güntekin addresses a similar theme with the works of Karaosmanoğlu. Güntekin's narrative has a detailed and precise style, with a realistic tone.

The social realist movement is perhaps best represented by the short-story writer Sait Faik Abasıyanık (1906-1954), whose work sensitively and realistically treats the lives of cosmopolitan Istanbul's lower classes and ethnic minorities, subjects which led to some criticism in the contemporary nationalistic atmosphere.[23] The tradition of the "village novel", on the other hand, arose somewhat later. As its name suggests, the "village novel" deals, in a generally realistic manner, with life in the villages and small towns of Turkey. The major writers in this tradition are Kemal Tahir (1910-1973), Orhan Kemal (1914-1970), and Yaşar Kemal (1923[?]-2015). Yaşar Kemal, in particular, has earned fame outside of Turkey not only for his novels-many of which, such as 1955's İnce Memed (Memed, My Hawk), elevate local tales to the level of epic-but also for his firmly leftist political stance. In a very different tradition, but evincing a similar strong political viewpoint, was the satirical short-story writer Aziz Nesin (1915-1995) and Rıfat Ilgaz(1911-1993).

Another novelist contemporary to, but outside of, the social realist and "village novel" traditions is Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar (1901-1962). In addition to being an important essayistand poet, Tanpınar wrote a number of novels-such as Huzur ("A Mind at Peace", 1949) and Saatleri Ayarlama Enstitüsü ("The Time Regulation Institute", 1961)-which dramatize the clash between East and West in modern Turkish culture and society. Similar problems are explored by the novelist and short-story writer Oğuz Atay (1934-1977). Unlike Tanpınar, however, Atay-in such works as his long novel Tutunamayanlar ("The Good for Nothing", 1971-1972) and his short story "Beyaz Mantolu Adam" ("Man in a White Coat", 1975)-wrote in a more modernist and existentialist vein. On the other hand, Onat Kutlar's İshak ("Isaac", 1959), composed of nine short stories which are written mainly from a child's point of view and are often surrealistic and mystical, represent a very early example of magic realism.

Orhan Pamuk, winner of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature

The tradition of literary modernism also informs the work of female novelist Adalet Ağaoğlu (1929- ). Her trilogy of novels collectively entitledDar Zamanlar ("Tight Times", 1973-1987), for instance, examines the changes that occurred in Turkish society between the 1930s and the 1980s in a formally and technically innovative style. Orhan Pamuk (1952- ), winner of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature, is another such innovative novelist, though his works-such as 1990's Beyaz Kale ("The White Castle") and Kara Kitap ("The Black Book") and 1998's Benim Adım Kırmızı ("My Name is Red")-are influenced more by postmodernism than by modernism. This is true also of Latife Tekin (1957- ), whose first novel Sevgili Arsız Ölüm ("Dear Shameless Death", 1983) shows the influence not only of postmodernism, but also of magic realism.

The Republican establishment and later corporate sponsors strictly controlled the literary environment by employing poets and writers as bureaucrats, providing subsidies to journals, arranging publishing opportunities for the works of the favored names. Many of the names above were favored by the Kemalist establishment by making them deputies, advisors and public servants.

Today similar biased tendency still persists. Most of the names quoted above have secular and pro-western ideology. Yet there have been and still are traditional and religious literary figures with huge following who have been kept out the literary circles. The zealous poet and polemicist Necip Fazıl Kısakürek is known for his lifelong struggle against the one party rule and Kemalism and spent years in prison as a result. Nuri Pakdil, Cahit Zarifoğlu, Erdem Bayazıt, Mehmet Akif İnan are other notable poets in the way of Muslim-traditional lineage. In the short story field, Rasim Özdenören, Mustafa Kutlu and Ramazan Dikmen have become prominent.

Only recently the secular, pro-establishment authors and poets began to utilize traditional and native imagery partly as a result of the western curiosity towards an exotic "Orient", mysticism and Sufism. Pamuk's novels exemplify this tendency a lot.

The effect of the cultural change especially thanks to alphabet change impacted vastly imagery and style of the Turkish Republican literature.

A recent study by Can and Patton[24] provides a quantitative analysis of twentieth century Turkish literature using forty novels of forty authors ranging from Mehmet Rauf's (1875-1931) Eylül (1901) to Ahmet Altan's (1950-) Kılıç Yarası Gibi (1998). Using weighted least squares regression and a sliding window approach, they show that, as time passes, words, in terms of both tokens (in text) and types (in vocabulary), have become longer. They indicate that the increase in word lengths with time can be attributed to the government-initiated language reform of the 20th century.[25] This reform aimed at replacing foreign words used in Turkish, especially Arabic- and Persian-based words (since they were in majority when the reform was initiated in the early 1930s), with newly coined pure Turkish neologisms created by adding suffixes to Turkish word stems. Can and Patton;[24] based on their observations of the change of a specific word use (more specifically in newer works the preference of "ama" over "fakat", both borrowed from Arabic and meaning 'but', and their inverse usage correlation is statistically significant); also speculate that the word length increase can influence the common word choice preferences of authors.

Poetry

Poetry of the Republic of Turkey

Nazım Hikmet(1902-1963) introduced the free verse style into Turkish poetry.

In the early years of the Republic of Turkey, there were a number of poetic trends. Authors such as Ahmed Hâşim and Yahyâ Kemâl Beyatlı (1884-1958) continued to write important formal verse whose language was, to a great extent, a continuation of the late Ottoman tradition. By far the majority of the poetry of the time, however, was in the tradition of the folk-inspired "syllabist" movement (Beş Hececiler), which had emerged from the National Literature movement and which tended to express patriotic themes couched in the syllabic meter associated with Turkish folk poetry.

The first radical step away from this trend was taken by Nâzım Hikmet Ran, who-during his time as a student in the Soviet Union from 1921 to 1924-was exposed to the modernist poetry of Vladimir Mayakovsky and others, which inspired him to start writing verse in a less formal style. At this time, he wrote the poem "Açların Gözbebekleri" ("Pupils of the Hungry"), which introduced free verse into the Turkish language for, essentially, the first time.[26]Much of Nâzım Hikmet's poetry subsequent to this breakthrough would continue to be written in free verse, though his work exerted little influence for some time due largely to censorship of his work owing to his Communist political stance, which also led to his spending several years in prison. Over time, in such books as Simavne Kadısı Oğlu Şeyh Bedreddin Destanı ("The Epic of Shaykh Bedreddin, Son of Judge Simavne", 1936) andMemleketimden İnsan Manzaraları ("Human Landscapes from My Country", 1939), he developed a voice simultaneously proclamatory and subtle.

Orhan Veli Kanık (1914-1950) was the founder of the Garip Movement in Turkish poetry.

Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the publication of a small volume of verse preceded by an essay and entitled Garip ("Strange"). The authors were Orhan Veli Kanık (1914-1950), Melih Cevdet Anday (1915-2002), and Oktay Rifat (1914-1988). Explicitly opposing themselves to everything that had gone in poetry before, they sought instead to create a popular art, "to explore the people's tastes, to determine them, and to make them reign supreme over art".[27] To this end, and inspired in part by contemporary French poets like Jacques Prévert, they employed not only a variant of the free verse introduced by Nâzım Hikmet, but also highly colloquial language, and wrote primarily about mundane daily subjects and the ordinary man on the street. The reaction was immediate and polarized: most of the academic establishment and older poets vilified them, while much of the Turkish population embraced them wholeheartedly. Though the movement itself lasted only ten years-until Orhan Veli's death in 1950, after which Melih Cevdet Anday and Oktay Rifat moved on to other styles-its effect on Turkish poetry continues to be felt today.

Just as the Garip movement was a reaction against earlier poetry, so-in the 1950s and afterwards-was there a reaction against the Garip movement. The poets of this movement, soon known as İkinci Yeni ("Second New",[28]) opposed themselves to the social aspects prevalent in the poetry of Nâzım Hikmet and the Garip poets, and instead-partly inspired by the disruption of language in such Western movements asDada and Surrealism-sought to create a more abstract poetry through the use of jarring and unexpected language, complex images, and the association of ideas. To some extent, the movement can be seen as bearing some of the characteristics of postmodern literature. The most well-known poets writing in the "Second New" vein were Turgut Uyar (1927-1985), Edip Cansever (1928-1986), Cemal Süreya (1931-1990), Ece Ayhan (1931-2002), Sezai Karakoç (1933- ), İlhan Berk (1918-2008).

Outside of the Garip and "Second New" movements also, a number of significant poets have flourished, such as Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca (1914-2008), who wrote poems dealing with fundamental concepts like life, death, God, time, and the cosmos; Behçet Necatigil (1916-1979), whose somewhat allegorical poems explore the significance of middle-classdaily life; Can Yücel (1926-1999), who-in addition to his own highly colloquial and varied poetry-was also a translator into Turkish of a variety of world literature; İsmet Özel(1944- ), whose early poetry was highly leftist but whose poetry since the 1970s has shown a strong mystical and even Islamist influence; and Hasan Hüseyin Korkmazgil (1927-1984) who wrote collectivist-realist poetry.

Book Trade

30,000 new titles appear yearly, often in small numbers. 9 verso 17 Euro (pro pocket book/hardcover) - at an average earning of less than 600 Euro monthly - are rather unattractive, where illegal copies at bazaars cost two thirds less. "Official Certificates" for legally published books do not solve the problem, because controlling the illegal book trade remains difficult.

5,000 of 10,000 book shops in Turkey are in Istanbul, including the bookfair and growing licence trading. Turkey was a guest of honour at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2008.[29]

Important works of fiction: 1860-present[edit]

İbrahim Şinasi

Halide Edip Adıvar

Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil

Sabahattin Ali

Tarık Buğra

Oğuz Atay

Füruzan

Halikarnas Balıkçısı

•1860 Şair Evlenmesi İbrahim Şinasi

•1873 Vatan Yahut Silistre Namık Kemal

•1900 Aşk-ı Memnu Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil

•1919 Memleket Hikayeleri Refik Halit Karay

•1922 Çalıkuşu Reşat Nuri Güntekin

•1930 Dokuzuncu Hariciye Koğuşu Peyami Safa

•1932 Yaban Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu

•1936 Sinekli Bakkal Halide Edip Adıvar

•1938 Üç İstanbul Mithat Cemal Kuntay

•1941 Fahim Bey ve Biz Abdülhak Şinasi Hisar

•1943 Yeni Dünya Sabahattin Ali

•1944 Aganta Burina Burinata Halikarnas Balıkçısı

•1949 Huzur Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar

•1952 Dost Vüs'at O. Bener

•1954 Alemdağda Var Bir Yılan Sait Faik Abasıyanık

•1954 Bereketli Topraklar Üzerinde Orhan Kemal

•1955 İnce Memet Yaşar Kemal

•1956 Esir Şehrin İnsanları Kemal Tahir

•1959 Yılanların Öcü Fakir Baykurt

•1959 Aylak Adam Yusuf Atılgan

•1960 Ortadirek Yaşar Kemal

•1962 Saatleri Ayarlama Enstitüsü Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar

•1964 Küçük Ağa Tarık Buğra

•1966 Memleketimden İnsan Manzaraları Nâzım Hikmet

•1971 Tutunamayanlar Oğuz Atay

•1973 Parasız Yatılı Füruzan

•1973 Anayurt Oteli Yusuf Atılgan

•1979 Bir Düğün Gecesi Adalet Ağaoğlu

•1982 Cevdet Bey ve Oğulları Orhan Pamuk

•1983 Sevgili Arsız Ölüm Latife Tekin

•1985 Gece Bilge Karasu

•1990 Kara Kitap Orhan Pamuk

•1995 Puslu Kıtalar Atlası İhsan Oktay Anar

•1998 Benim Adım Kırmızı Orhan Pamuk

•2002 Tol Murat Uyurkulak

•2005 Uykuların Doğusu Hasan Ali Toptaş